話語分析中的基本概念

前言

　　This manual has been written as an introduction to discourse analysis for future linguistic field workers. We believe that the most effective way for most people to leam how discourse works in a particular language is by interacting with discourse principles while analyzing texts from that language. We therefore present the essential minimum， the most basic concepts of discourse， as a foundation for subsequent in-depth analysis with field data. We also believe that basic discourse notions are invaluable in all aspects of a language program. Those aspects range from language learning to lexical， semantic， and morphosyntactic analysis， right on through to linguistic applications such as education and literature production， where clear communication is of fundamental importance.　　Our goals for this manual imply a combination of features that we have not found elsewhere. First， we intend it to be practical， addressing issues commonly confronted by field linguists. Rather than attempting to apply a rigid theory or survey a variety of approaches， we provide a methodology that has been refined over years of use. Second， although we follow no rigid theory， we aim for more than a "grab bag" of diverse methodologies by attempting to present the material within a coherent and productive framework. Specifically， we follow a functional and cognitive approach that seems to be a good approximation of how discourse is actually produced and understood. Third， we have kept the manual brief. Most chapters are no longer than six pages， and the whole can be covered in fifteen classroom hours. Although our aim is introductory rather than comprehensive， we do provide references for further reading on the topics discussed.

內容概要

《話語分析中的基本概念》以廣義的功能語言學和認知語言學為理論依據，詳解了話語分析中的一些基本、實用的概念，探討了“語篇類型”、“話語的共同特點”、“參與者所指”等問題。作者不囿于一種理論，集各家所長，為讀者提供了一種話語分析的研究方法。內文淺顯易懂，篇幅適中，是理想的話語分析方面的入門書。

書籍目錄

Preface1-4 Types of Text　1 Means of Production: Number of Speakers.　2 Type of Content: Text Genres　3 Manner of Production: Style and Register　4 Medium of Production: Oral Versus Written5-15 Common Characteristics in Discourses　5 Coherence　6 Cohesion　7 Thematic Groupings and Thematic Discontinuities 　8 Text Charting　9 Mental Representations Revisited　10 Activation Status, Definiteness, and Referential Status　11 Discourse-Pragmatic Structuring of Sentences　12 Foreground and Background Information　13 Signaling Relations Between Propositions　14 The Reporting of Conversation　15 Conventionalized Aspects of Text Organization16-18 Participant Reference　16 Basic Notions of Reference　17 Strategies of Reference　18 A Methodology for Analyzing Reference PatternsAppendices　Appendix A: “Winds of Terror” 　Appendix B: “The Train Ride”　Appendix C: Extract from “The Healer and His Wife”ReferencesIndex

章節(jié)摘錄

　　Medium of Production: Oral Versus　　Written　　This chapter summarizes the most common differences that have been observed between oral and written texts of the same genre. Such differences show up, for instance, when comparing oral and written versions of a narrative given by an accomplished storyteller, or when comparing recorded and printed versions of a political address. As Bartsch says (1997:45), "Different genres have different features, and it is not helpful to compare oranges to apples." Consequently, comparisons between oral texts of one genre and written texts of another may be misleading (see Chafe 1985b for a comparison between dinner table conversation and academic prose which falls into this trap).　　Bartschs article not only compares an oral and a written version of the same narrative in an Algonquian language of North America, but also in cludes a useful bibliography of recent publications on variations between speech and writing.　　4.1 Frequency of repetition　　"Spoken language uses a lot of repetition. But in written language there is a limit to how much repetition can be tolerated by readers" (Aaron 1998:3).Bartschs comparison of the oral and written forms of an Algonquian story revealed that the same teaching point was made four or five times in the oral version, but only once in the written one. Similarly, if a reported speech was longer than one sentence, the SPEECH ORIENTER (e.g., he sa/d, sometimes called "quotation margin", "quote tag", etc.) was often repeated in the oral version,but not in the written one.　　A distinctive form of repetition frequently found in oral material is TAIL-HEAD LINKAGE (Thompson and Longacre 1985:209-213). This consists of the repetition in a subordinate clause, at the beginning (the "head") of a new sentence, of at least the main verb of the previous sentence (the "tail"),8 as in...he arrived at the house. When he arrived at the house, he saw a snake. Johnston (1976:66) found that tail-head linkage, considered the "life blood of narrative discourse in most Papua New Guinea languages", was edited out of written texts by native speakers.　In oral texts in some languages, EVIDENRIALS (or "verification markers", such as witnessed, hearsay, or deduced, which indicate the source of evidence of the information being presented——see Barnes 1984 and Palmer 1986) occur in every sentence. In written texts, however, once the source of the information has been established, evidentials tend to be used only sparingly.　　4.2 Deviations from default orders　　Variations from the default or unmarked order of constituents in clauses or sentences are more frequent in oral than in written material. This is because spoken utterances are accompanied by intonation contours that unite constituents into larger units, and by pauses that help to signal boundaries between units. Such variations may be less acceptable in written material. For instance, Chafe (1985b:115) observes that antitopics in English (Never been to a wedding dance. Neithmr of us.) tend to be used only in oral material.　　In the Inga (Quechuan) language of Colombia, the default position of the verb is at the end of its clause. In oral material, it is common for the verb to be followed by nominal or adverbial constituents, and for main clauses to be followed by subordinate ones. When such texts were written down and read aloud, however, native speakers invariably ended sentences with the main verb and began a new sentence with the material that followed it, even though the punctuation indicated that the sentence concerned had not ended.　　4.3 Organization　　Written style is more concise and better organized, and introduces new information at a faster pace (Chafe 1992:268). Bartsch found that purpose　　8Neither "head" nor "tail" is used here in a common linguistic sense. In particular, "head" does not refer to grammatical head, and "tail" does not refer to the entity to be discussed under that name in chapter 11.　　clauses were much more frequent in the written form of the Algonquian story than in the oral version. Conversely, the oral version had "more author intrusions, extra explanatory material that wasnt part of the story line" (1997:45).　　Groupings of sentences tend to be longer in written than in oral mate rial. For example, oral material tends to organize reported speech in pairings of initiating moves and resolving moves (see chapter 1), whereas written material tends to be organized into larger groupings (Levinsohn 2000:218-219).　　4.4 Preciseness　　Because writers have more time to think of "the right word" than speakers, written text is characterized by more careful word choice than even the most carefully planned oral material (Biber 1988:163). In contrast, spoken language often uses HEDGES (Lakoff 1972) like sort of and kind of,as in He started sort of circling (Chafe 1985b:121).　　Chafe (p. 114) also notes that the English lexicon consists of three kinds of items: COLLOQUIAL VOCABUlaRY that is used predominantly in speaking (e.g., guy, stuff, scary), LITERARY VOCABUI~~RY that is used predominantly in writing (e.g., d/sp/ay, heed), and VOCABULARY THAT IS NEUTRAL with respect to this distinction (neutral equivalents of the above colloquial and literary words are man, material, frightening show, pay attention to).　　4.5 Paralinguistic signals　　"Spoken language relies heavily on prosody (pitch, pause, tempo, voice quality, etc.) and body language for deixis, respect, interpropositional relations, and a host of other categories" (Aaron 1998:3). Written language relies on punctuation and description to convey similar effects, but generally in an under-coded manner.　　Certain deictics, such as indefinite th/s in English (I woke up with this headache), may also be restricted to oral material (Chafe 1985b:115).　　4.6 Practical applications　　Differences between oral and written language have specific applicability to many types of practical linguistic work.　　In language teaching (including ESL), for example, we note that the range of skills needed by new readers only partially overlaps with those needed by new speakers.

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